Abstract
The early complex societies of Central Pacific Panama have long been recognized by anthropologists for their strong levels of social hierarchy. Such hierarchy is apparent in the ethnohistoric texts of the 16th century, and in elaborate burial assemblages of the Late Ceramic II period (AD 700-1522). Not surprisingly, those regions in which hierarchy is most apparent have been the main focus of archaeological research, while those in which inequalities were apparently weaker have received less attention. These latter regions, however, are also a vital part of understanding hierarchical development they can bring into sharper relief the factors that gave way to hierarchical organization in some regions, as well as those factors that may have discouraged it from developing in others. Regional settlement data from the Rio Parita and Rio Tonosi valleys provide an opportunity to explore this issue. These data suggest that the hierarchical variability observed between these regions may have arisen as a result of differential levels of regional population growth and environmental risk, which gave way to different patterns of land use and structures of local interaction. These different interaction structures facilitated different sorts of activities and inter-household relationships, leading to markedly different forms of social organization. (C) 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.