Abstract
This study, using an inductive approach, aims to measure face needs across divergent cultures in order to (1) revisit the common practice of accepting the universality of face needs, (2) explore the impact of holism and cognitive relativity on the relationships among nationality, gender, and face needs, and (3) explore divergent structures of face needs across cultures. A total of 924 participants were recruited from China (n = 263), Japan (n = 198), South Korea (n = 256), and the U.S. (n = 207). While the results provided findings consistent with previous studies in general, cultural differences were notable across the four nations with a unique structure of face needs produced by each culture. These results underscore significant cultural variations in face needs, indicating that the complexity of the notion of face may not be equivalent across cultures, which urges development of culture-specific measurements that are contextualized in each culture.