Abstract
In May and June 2005, voters in the Netherlands and France rejected the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe (TCE) in national referenda. Explanations by the media and academics were insufficient, as they paid little attention to the discourse of the referendum debates and the role of key political leaders as they campaigned in opposition to and support of the TCE. The information presented here was obtainedfrom primary sources including: articles published at the time of the referenda in both US. - andforeign-based news periodicals, andfrom European think tanks; official EU documents, such as the text of the TCE and surveys conducted by the Commission; interviews and speeches given by political leaders; government reports; and articles from peer-reviewed journals. National leaders who campaigned in support of the ratification of the TCEfailed to use the appropriate symbols in their attempts to frame ratification as a gain for Dutch and French citizens. In contrast, the symbols used by opponents of the treaty were far stronger and effective, and were appropriate to attempts to frame ratification as a loss. Thus, opponents in both countries were better able to appeal to the concerns of voters and exerted greater influence over voter opinion and the outcome of the referenda.