Abstract
For two-thirds of the twentieth century Xaripus were recruited as colonial labor to the United States.¹ After the Bracero Program ended in the mid-1960s, they continued to labor under colonial conditions in the agricultural fields, where they remained highly exploited, underpaid, and without access to labor rights.² In spite of their residential status and semipermanent settlement in the United States, retiradas/os and mayores generally remained working in farm labor throughout their lives.³ Many hijas/os, however, searched for economic opportunities outside of the fields, particularly at the time of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) and 1994 North American